Rashidun Caliphate

State · 633–665 CE · at its largest around 647 CE

Under the first four caliphs, Muhammad's companions, the young Muslim community burst out of Arabia to conquer Persia, Syria and Egypt. The Quran was compiled into a single text, but disputes over leadership ended in civil war and the lasting split between Sunni and Shia.

On its lands while it lasted

Uruk (c. 5,000 BCE – c. 700 CE): Sumerian city on the Euphrates that by about 3100 BCE was probably the largest city in the world, centre of the first urban civilization.
Anshan Persia (4,000 BCE – 675 CE): Capital of Elam (2700 BCE–601 BCE).
Uplistsikhe (2,001 BCE – 740 CE): Capital of Principality of Iberia (682–740).
Sogdians (c. 500 BCE – c. 900 CE): Iranian people of the Zeravshan valley around Samarkand and Bukhara whose merchants dominated trade along the Silk Roads, especially between the 4th and 8th centuries.
Ctesiphon (c. 239 BCE – c. 637 CE): Capital of Parthian Empire (239 BCE–224).
Silk Road (c. 130 BCE – c. 1450 CE): A network of overland caravan routes linking China with Central Asia, Persia and the Mediterranean, along which silk, spices, horses, religions, technologies and diseases travelled for more than 1,500 years.
Palmyra (c. 261–1929 CE): Capital of Palmyrene Empire (261–269).
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE): After Muhammad's death his companions led the Muslim community as caliphs, conquering Byzantine Syria and Egypt and the Sasanian Empire.
Battle of the Yarmuk (636 CE): Arab Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army near the Yarmuk River, opening the Levant to the Muslim conquest.
Battle of al-Qadisiyyah (c. 636 CE): Arab Muslim forces defeated the Sasanian army near al-Qadisiyyah in Iraq, opening Mesopotamia and the capital Ctesiphon to conquest.
Muslim conquest of Egypt (639–642 CE): Arab Muslim forces under Amr ibn al-As took Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and founded the garrison city of Fustat.
Sari (c. 644 CE): Capital of Dabuyid Dynasty (644–756).
Standard text of the Quran (c. 650 CE): Under Caliph Uthman, a standard written text of the Quran was compiled and copies sent to the major cities, forming the basis of the text used today.
Kufa (c. 656 CE): Capital of Rashidun Caliphate (656–661).
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE): Mu'awiya I founded the Umayyad Caliphate with its capital at Damascus; it extended Muslim rule from Iberia to Central Asia.